What Is Hepatitis?

A person may catch hepatitis and recover from it, not even knowing about it. A person may live with chronic form of hepatitis many years and discover it when the disease is on cirrhosis stage.

What viruses cause hepatitis?

Viruses A and E may cause acute hepatitis called “the disease of dirty hands” because people often get infection while traveling in the African and Asian countries. Viruses B, C, D may be agents of chronic hepatitis. Those viruses are transmitted via blood or during unprotected sex. In some cases chronic viral hepatitis after 10-30 years may lead to cirrhosis or liver cancer.

What are hepatitis symptoms?Acute hepatitis has the same symptoms as simple cold with food infection symptoms। In case yellow plague is not developed, people often recover successfully without knowing what disease they had। So acute hepatitis C in 95% of cases is unnoticed and hepatitis B is unnoticed in 70%. The main symptom showing chronic form of disease is constant fatigue.

Who and when should make tests for hepatitis?
# patients with chronic kidney failure who are on hemodialysis
# persons after operations and endoscopic procedures
# spouses and children of persons with hepatitis
# if the blood biochemical test shows liver damage
# drug addicts
# after unprotected sexual intercourse
# after making tattoo, piercing, manicure or pedicure in salon
# after visiting countries with high prevalence of hepatitis: South-East Asia, Central Africa

What tests should be made at the first suspicion?

To detect hepatitis, biochemical test of blood is made. This test is cheap, informative and available in most laboratories. The most important indicators for the diagnosis of hepatitis is the level of enzymes SPGT (alanine aminotransferase) and ACT (aspartate aminotransferase). In case they are out of normal level then it means the patient has hepatitis. Then the next step is to go to gastroenterologist and infectiologist that do specialize on hepatitis.

How to check for hepatitis B and C?

The most rational way is to do a blood test on the most important markers of chronic hepatitis B and C. In case were found HbsAg (membrane antigen of B virus) and antibodies to to hepatitis C virus, you should go to the doctor. He will say if it is necessary or not to make other tests to detect virus antigens. Such profound examinations are made in special laboratories. You may at once make blood test for RNA and DNA of viruses B and C. If they will be detected then you should anyway make antigen and antibodies test in order to find the best treatment.

How To Improve Your Immunity?

In autumn, winter and spring many of us complain on immunity lowering. We become more vulnerable to different diseases and we may catch any virus.


First of all, what is immunity?
Immunity is body resistance to everything heterogenes. Immune system protects body from penetration of dangerous for its life activity matters such as bacteria, viruses and fungi and other harmful micro organisms.

If infection enters human body, then infection starts to reproduce and human condition breaks down. Do appear first symptoms: sneeze, cough, high body temperature. If a person has good immunity then comes breaking point and in the blood start to produce antibodies – matters that destroy infection in the body.

Humans have special cells called lymphocytes. They act as soldiers protecting their state, in other words, they along with antibodies destroy infection acting as aggressors.
There exists species immunity when cats and dogs do not get infected with human diseases and vise versa.

Natural acquired immunity appears after past disease. Artificial immunity appears after flu shot. Everybody know that some people get diseased frequently and some quite rarely. That's a shame. So what to do?

The answer is quite simple – it is necessary to improve your immunity. It is not so difficult as it seems at first sight, although it requires some efforts. Alcohol, smoking, stress, poor ecology, unhealthy food and water, great mental and physical stress do lower immunity.

For most of us it is much easier to take a modern pill than to come down the sofa. Today modern human moves less and less, because civilization brings him a number of things literally on the plate. That is why those who want to iimprove their immunity should increase their physical activity. It may be gymnastics, aerobics, swimming. outdoor games, working in the garden, walking.

Quenching and yoga help in immunity strengthening. Healthy foods (fruits, vegetables, cereals, coarse bread, legumes, vegetable oils, honey, lactate products) also help to increase immunity. Vitamins should always be presented in your diet. Make your habit to drink vitaminic mineral assemblage. It is healthful to take each morning a spoon with honey when your stomach is empty.

Green tea and mate positively work on the immunity. Stress usually is resulted from overfatigue that is why you should rest good. So, you will reduce chances to get infected. And in case you get infected, you will recover from disease much easily. It is better to improve immunity in late spring, summer and early autumn.

Genital Herpes

Genital herpes is caused by the agent called herpes simplex virus (HSV). There are two types of herpes virus:

I herpes virus type affects mainly skin and mucous coat of lips, eyes, nose (HSV-1)

II herpes virus type affects mucous coat of genital organs (HSV-2)

However, genital herpes may be developed under the influence of mixed infection of type I and type II.

Ways of transmission:
1. sexual contact with someone who has a genital HSV-2 infection;
2. genital oral contact;
3. autoinfection, when diseased person carries the virus from center of infection on uninfected parts of the body, for example, from face to genital organs;
4. vertical way of transmission is possible when during pregnancy occurs infection of baby from his mother (fetal infection) or during childbirth
5. domestic mode of transmission occurs extremely rarely and is completely excluded if the virus containing the secret dries.

The main source of infection in men is the urogenital tract, and in women - cervical canal.

Course

Infection with the herpes virus does not always cause manifestation of the disease, often it may have hidden character. In this case people do not know they have this virus disease, so they become source of infection for their sexual partner. A characteristic feature of herpes infection is duration of staying of the virus in the body (herpes virus may stay in the body whole life) and predisposition to aggravation. Undercooling, stress, overfatigue, infective disease (influenza, sore throat, respiratory viral infection) may cause aggravation of herpes.

Common manifestation: high temperature, headache, muscle pain, nausea.

Local manifestations occur in vulva area, vesical cervix area, urine. Typical sign is appearing of numerous small bladders with liquid, redness and edema of affected areas. When those bladders do burst, on their spots appear sores which do heal during 2-3 weeks. Along with bladder eruption and sore appearing patient can experience itch, pain, burning, lower abdomen severity.

Diagnostics of herpes infection is based on detecting the virus and its antibodies in the blood and in swabs from affected area.

Genital Herpes Treatment

Treatment takes quite long time. Genital herpes treatment is directed on stoppage of virus reproduction in human body and elevation of body defenses. Remedies acting directly on virus are not still found. Doctors prescribe such medications as Zovirax (Aciclovir), Neovir, specific zoster immunoglobulin. Ointments are used to shorten time for sores healing on affected areas.

In order to rise immunity doctors prescribe immunostimulants and vitamin and mineral complexes.

Taking Zovirax (Aciclovir) during several months helps to prevent recurrence of genital herpes.

Complications caused by herpes virus during pregnancy:

# prematurity or premature birth
# development of fetus abnormalities
# transplacental infection

Swine Flu. Part Two

Should women stop breastfeeding if they do think they might have swine flu H1N1?

No, they should continue breastfeeding unless doctor advises them to stop. Continuing breastfeeding protects baby from getting infected by passing on maternal antibodies and boosting the immune system.

Should I take an antiviral drug in order to prevent swine flu H1N1?

No, you should not take antiviral drugs unless prescribed by the doctor.

Should I avoid traveling to flu affected countries?

Some health ministries have advised the public to avoid unnecessary travel to flu affected countries. But the World Health Organization is not recommending travel restrictions because international travel will disrupt people's plans and schedules with little impact on the spread of the virus.

May I go to the work if I have swine flu H1N1?

No, it is recommended to stay at home if you have symptoms of swine flu. This is important to protect your friends and colleagues from becoming ill.

What is the treatment of swine flu H1N1?

Swine flu is responding to two antiviral drugs called oseltamivir or zanamivir. These are prescription drugs that stop the flu virus from reproducing in your body. Antiviral drugs can make you feel better faster. They may also prevent serious flu complications.

Can I travel if I have swine flu H1N1?

If you have symptoms of swine flu, you should not travel. If you feel bad but cannot avoid traveling or contact with others, cover your mouth and nose with special mask.

What is the incubation period of swine flu H1N1?

The incubation period of swine flu is unknown but it could range from 1 to 7 days, and more likely 1 to 4 days.

WHO has declared a swine flu H1N1 pandemic. What does that mean?

A pandemic is an infectious disease that is spreading worldwide. If a disease is declared a pandemic, it means that it is spreading rapidly across the world. When the WHO declared a swine flu H1N1 pandemic, the flu virus had already been reported from 70 countries and cases were occurring in multiple parts of the world.

How long does influenza virus remain alive on surfaces such as tables and doorknobs?

Influenza virus can survive on environmental surfaces and can infect a person for up to 2-8 hours after being deposited on the surface.

Bacteria: Advantages:

Bacteria are our friends as they are associated with several advantages in various forms. Some of them are:

1. Bacteria & Ecosystem: Saprophytic bacteria along with saprophytic fungi perform useful role of decomposers in ecosystem. Decomposition of organic matter in absence of O₂ is called putrefaction and breakdown of organic matter in presence of O₂ is called decay. Highly un-decomposed organic matter is litter; partly decomposed organic matter is humus and highly decomposed organic matter is called humus.
2. Bacteria & Industry: Lactobacillus laciti and Streptococcus lacti convert milk into curd. Acetobacillus aciti changes sugar solution into vinegar. Flavour in tea leaves by Micococcus condensa and in tobacco leaves by Micococus megatherium develops due to fermentation activity of bacteria. Retting involves separation of plant fibers after decomposition of non-cellulosic materials by various species of Closteridium like C.butyricum and C.felsineum.
3. Bacteria and N-cycle system: Nitrogen is first essential element in terms of requirement for proper growth of plants. It is required in protein synthesis, chlorophyll synthesis and also in synthesis of nucleic acids. Plants cannot utilize molecular nitrogen directly. The plants mainly in the form of nitrates absorb it. Nitrogen changes into nitrate via ammonia formation. Some bacteria control N-cycle, which comprises Nitrogen fixation, Nitrification and Denitrification. Nitrogen fixation involves conversion of N₂ into ammonia. Bacteria which participate in N-fixation are Closteridium, Azotobacter and Rhizobium etc. Closteridium and Azotobacter and asymbiotic biological N fixing bacteria whereas Rhizobium is symbiotic biological N-fixing bacteria are present in root nodules of Leguminous or papilionaceous plants. Klebsiella is leaf nodule N-fixing bacteria. Frankia is non-leguminous N-fixing bacteria 'nif' genes control biological N-fixation. Mechanism of biological N-fixation by bacteria was first studied by Heijerinck whereas Winogradasky studied biological N₂ fixation by some blue green algae.
   • Conversion of NH₃ into nitrite is termed as initial stage of Nitrification. A bacterium which participates in initial stage of nitrification is nitrosomonas Conversions of nitrite into nitrate is called final stage of nitrification. Nitrobacter is the bacteria which participates in final stage of nitrification.
   • Release of Nitrogen from Macromolecules of Nitrogen is called denitrification. Bacillus denitrificans is the bacteria involved in denitrification. The summary of Nitrogen cycle is given in the following figure:

Summary of various N-fixing bacteria:

• Azotobacter, Thiobacillus, Mycobacterium etc. : Free living & aerobic.
• Closteridium Klebsiella : Free living & anaerobic.
• Rhizobium, Aopzprirllium Frankia : Symbiotic & anaerobic
• Citrobacter : Symbiotic and anaerobic
  • Bacteria & Antibiotics: Though first antibiotic penicillin was obtained from ascomycetes fungus Penicillium notatum by Alexander Flemming in 1929, yet soil-borne bacteria Streptomyces of actinomycetes (ray fungi) are rich source of various types of antibioitics. Antibiotics are chemical inhibition. The term 'antibiotic' was coined by Salman Waksman. Antibiotics are known as chemotherapeutic agents. Some of the antibiotics extracted from bacteria are bacitracin, subtilin, polymyxin, gramicidin etc.

Salient features of some antibiotics chemotherapeutic agents

Name of the antibiotics	Name of the discover	Source of antibiotics	Action of antibiotics
Penicillin	Alexander Flemming	P. notatum P. chrysogenum	Breaks muco complex cell wall of bacteria.
Streptomycin	Waksman	Streptomyces griesus	Inhibits synthesis of 30S fragment of ribosome in bacteria.
Erythromycin	Mc Guire	S. erythreus	Inhibits synthesis of 50S fragment of ribosome in bacteria
Chloromycin	Burkholder	S. venezualae	Inhibits initiation of protein synthesis in bacteria.
Aureomycin	Duggar	S. auerofaciens	Inhibits formation of tRNA amino acid complex.
Terramycin	Pfizer Ltd.	S. rimosus	Inhibits formation of tRNA amino acid complex.

Penicillin is not broad spectrum antibiotic because it is more active on gram positive bacteria, less effective on gram negative bacteria. Streptomycin is first brad spectrum antibiotic which is equally active on gram positive and gram negative bacteria both.

• Bacteria & Miscellaneous uses

1. Aerobacter aerogenes decomposes DDT whereas Flavobacterium and Corynebacterium decompose 2, 4-D etc. DDT and 2, 4-D are non-biodegradable chemicals, which may be lethal even.

2. Bacillus pudita, pseudomonas and some other oil-eating bacteria help in cleaning up oil spills. They thus help in preventing water pollution of seas/oceans caused due to oil refineries.
3. Anand Mohan Chakroborty has developed genetically engineered bacteria named Superbug that feeds on oil spills.
4. Bacterium Methylophylus methylotropous is source of single cell protein (SCP) the product was called 'Pruteen'. Fungus Fusarium is also used for the purpose i.e. preparation of mycoprotein on larger scale.
5. Batch culture & continuous culture are two main methods of fermentation on larger scale. The former is closed system whereas latter is open system.

Bacteria: Disadvantages

• Bacteria are our 'foes' as they are associated with several diseases of plants and animals including man due to parasitic mode of nutrition of some bacteria. Bacterial attack is less severe on plants than it is on animals.
• Important bacterial diseases on plants are:
  1. Canker of Citrus (citrus canker) Xanthomonas citri
  2. Angular leaf spot of cotton X. malvacearum
  3. Fire blight of apples Erwinnia amylovora
  4. Crown gall of crops Agrobacterium tumefaciens
  5. Tondu of wheat Corynebacterium tritici
     • Important bacterial diseases on man are:
  6. Cyphillis Tryponema pallidum
  7. Plague (Black Death) Pasteurella pestis (Y. pestis)
  8. Chlorea Vibrio cholerae
  9. Anthrax Bacillus anthracis
  10. Pneumonia Diplococcus pneumonae
  11. Tuberculosis (TB) Mycobacterium tuberculoses
  12. Typhoid (Enteric fever) Salmonella typhi
  13. Bacterial dysentery Bacillus dysentrae (Shigella)
  14. Amoeboid dysentery Entamoeba histolytica (Protozoa)
  15. Tetanus (Lock jaw) Closteridium tetani
  16. Ptomaine (deadly food poisoning) Closteridium botulinum
  17. Leprosy Bacillus lepri (Mycobacterium lepri)
  18. Diptheria Corynebacterium diptherae
  19. Erysepalas (deadly blood Streptococcus

Poisoning; Death of RBC's)

20. Whooping cough Bordetella partusis
21. Gonorrhoea Neisseria gonorrhoae

Bacterial diseases like cholera, typhoid, dysentery etc are water borne diseases: tuberculosis, plague etc are air-borne diseases whereas disease like tetanus spreads through wounds. Syphilis is transmitted through sexual contact. Transmission of leprosy through contact is a matter of dispute. India based Mother Teresa was awarded Nobel Prize for her service to leprosy patients in West Bengal and other parts of India

Bacteria : Forms

1. On the basis of shape, bacteria may be cocci (Singular coccus), Bacilli (Bacillus), Vibrio, Spirillum etc. Cocci are spherical bacteria, smallest in size. They may be single (monoococucus), in pairs (Diplococcus), in chains (streptococcus), in bunches (staphylococcus) or cuboid (sar cinnae). Bacteria causing pneumonia are Diplococcus Bacilli are rod shaped bacteria they may be single or in chains (Streptobacilli). Majority of parasitic bacteria are rod shaped bacteria. Streptobacilli surrounded by mucilaginous sheath form Zoogloea. Vibro are comma shaped bacteria. Bacteria causing cholera are vibrio bacteria. Spirillum and spirochaete are zigzag spring like bacteria, Spirillum volutans is recognized as largest bacteria. The terms like coccus, bacillus, vibrio etc were coined by Mueller.
2. On the basis of cilia, a bacterial cell may be:

Atrichous : Bacterial cell without cilia.

Monotrichour : Bacteria cell with single cilia.

Lopotrichous : Bacteria cell with tuft of cilia at one end.

Cephalotrichous : Bacterial cell with tuft of cilia at both the ends.

Amphitrichous : Bacterial cell with one cilia at both the ends.

Peritrichous : Bacterial cell with cilia throughout the body.

Bacteria causing cholera disease is comma shaped & Lophotrichous.

3. On the basis of nutrition, bacteria may heterotrophy or autotroph. Heterotroph bacteria are further divided as saprophytic bacteria & parasitic bacteria. Similarly, autotroph bacteria are further divided as chemosynthetic and photosynthetic bacteria.
   • Bacteria, which obtain their food from dead organic matter, are saprophytic bacteria. They perform significant role of decomposers in ecosystem. Bacteria, which obtain their food from other living entity, are called parasitic bacteria. The living entity, which provides food to parasite, is termed as host. Host-parasite relation is specific. Parasite is called pathogen when it spreads in host.
   • Bacteria, which obtain their food through the inorganic reactions in which they participate, are called chemosynthetic bacteria. They are named after the inorganic reactions, us that they are involved. Thus, N-Bacteria S-Bacteria & Fe-Bacteria etc are examples of chemosynthetic bacteria. Chemosynthetic bacteria are basically autotroph but do not require pigment chlorophyll for energy requirement. Chemosynthetic bacteria will survive alone if chlorophyll pigment disappears from the world; rest will perish.
   • Bacteria, which obtain chemical energy through glucose formation, are called photosynthetic bacteria. They are autotrophs and depend on chlorophyll like pigments i.e., Bacteriochlorophyll & chlorobium chlorophyll (Bacterio viridies) for glucose formation. Green-S-Bacteria, Purple-S-Bacteria & Rhodospirillium etc. are examples of photosynthetic bacteria.

Comparison between normal and bacterial photosynthesis
Normal Photosynthesis	Bacterial Photosynthesis
1. Raw materials are CO2 & H2O	1. Raw materials are CO2 & H2S
2. H for reduction of CO2 into glucose comes from H2O	2. H- for reduction of CO2 into glucose comes from H2S.
3. Principal pigment is chlorophyll a	3. Principal pigment Bacteriochlorophyll a.
4. Intermediate H-acceptor is NADP	4. Intermediate H-acceptor is NAD.
5. PS I & PS II both are present in light phase.	5. PS I only is present in light phase; PS II is absent.
6. O2 is released as by product	6. S is released as by product
7. Biochemical reaction 6CO2 + 12H2O = C6H12O6+6H2O+6O2	7. Biochemical reaction. 6CO2 + 12H2O = C6H12O6+6H2O+12S
Generalised equation for both of the above 6CO2 + 12H2A = C6H12O6 + 6H2O + 12A A may be oxygen or sulfur.

Photosynthesis in bacteria was first studied by Van Neil of Germany who was first to support the idea of Robino Hill that O₂ released in normal photosynthesis comes from H₂O and not from CO₂.